In his book Y’Avant-Garde Architecture (Toto, 1998), Japanese architectural historian Terunobu Fujimori theorized the subdivision of Japanese architecture into two schools of thought: the red school and the white school.
Red school architecture, he explained, is raw, earthy, and muscular, expressive of natural and gravity-bound materials. In contrast, white school works are characterized by refinement, lightness, and abstraction, embodying ephemeral and otherworldly qualities.
The notion of these schools is not new, but rooted in historic precedent. The substantive “red” works of architects like Arata Isozaki have conceptual ties to the constructions of miya daiku, or temple builders, which emanate gravitas via exposed structures and muscular bracketing systems.
Meanwhile, the transient “white” projects of architects such as Fumihiko Maki are connected to the works of sukiya daiku, or teahouse artisans, which convey elegance and evanescence.
The latest debate between the two schools is on full display at the 2025 World Expo in Osaka. Like other major world expositions, the Osaka Expo consists of scores of pavilions designed by international architects that represent global nations, major corporations, and thematic priorities.
Within this diverse collection of architectural strategies, notable contributions by Japanese architects and designers reveal new approaches to red and white school thinking that advance not only Japanese but also international architectural design.
The Grand Ring is constructed using a fusion of modern construction methods and traditional Nuki joints, such as those used in the construction of Japanese shrines and temples. It serves as the main route of visitor traffic around the Expo site, and offers visitors a comfortable space sheltered from the wind, rain, and sunlight.
Sou Fujimoto’s Grand Ring is a clear example of red school architecture. The 675 m diameter, 30 m-wide timber structure encircles the exposition grounds, functioning as both a thematic building and urban infrastructure. Designated as the largest wooden structure in the world at over 61,000 m2 in area, the Grand Ring is an outsized timber scaffold featuring traditional Japanese temple construction techniques. Alluding to the kakezukuri technique of monumental frame structures like Kyoto’s Kiyomizudera, the project represents raw, unembellished, gravity-bound construction.
The Japan Pavilion, designed by Oki Sato and Nikken Sekkei, features vertically oriented cross-laminated timber (CLT) planks arrayed in a series of rings that emanate radially from the center.
The Japan Pavilion, designed by Oki Sato and Nikken Sekkei, is another red school example. The architecture features vertically oriented cross-laminated timber (CLT) planks arrayed in a series of rings that emanate radially from the center. These stelae, which have varying heights, are oriented at acute angles to the facade plane, obscuring views to the interior.
Japan Pavilion, detail.
The resulting visual effect is akin to a collection of giant timber dominoes which, although spaced apart, form a collective expression that is grounded, unadorned, and monumental. (It is notable, if coincidental, that both works are circular, given the red school’s symbolic connection to the red circle in the Japanese flag.)
The Better Co-Being Pavilion, designed by SANAA, is emblematic of the white school, and the project is sufficiently ephemeral that “pavilion” may not be the most appropriate term.
In contrast, the Better Co-Being Pavilion, designed by SANAA, is emblematic of the white school. The project is sufficiently ephemeral that “pavilion” may not be the most appropriate term. A forest of thin white columns supports a volumetric roof truss consisting of delicate framing elements. Situated in the middle of the Expo site among the trees of the Forest of Tranquility, the project nearly disappears. Intermittent translucent roof panels and suspended strands of light-refracting crystals provide a hint of material substance within an otherwise immaterial structure.
The null2 Signature Pavilion by architect NOIZ and media artist Yoichi Ochiai.
The null2 Signature Pavilion by architect NOIZ and media artist Yoichi Ochiai takes white school qualities in an unexpected direction. At first glance, the interlocking cube structure appears to be clad in fixed chrome panels. However, subtle sonic vibrations cause ripples to cascade across the surface, revealing the facade to be nothing more substantial than ultrathin mirror film.
The null2 Signature Pavilion.
Null2 connects the concept of the digital twin to the optical phenomenon of reflection via materials that come alive in response to sound and light. “At its heart is the concept of the Mirrored Body: a digital human infrastructure powered by blockchain and AI, creating a unique digital alter ego for each visitor,” explains the design team’s project description. “Through interactive mirrors, visitors’ bodies are scanned and digitised, enabling them to engage with their virtual selves in new ways.” In uncannily uniting the analog and digital, the pavilion attains a new level of architectural transience.
These projects demonstrate not only that red and white school theory remains relevant in Japanese architecture but also that contemporary Japanese architects are expanding the definitions of these schools, further intensifying and diversifying their approaches.
When Fujimori first proposed the two schools, Isozaki (red) and Maki (white) were his primary models. However, the works of these two architects are much more similar than those of the red and white school pavilions of the 2025 World Expo.
These works also demonstrate how the schools are responding to new priorities and opportunities. For example, the Grand Ring and Japan Pavilion both prominently feature timber not only for its raw materiality but also for its carbon sequestration capabilities—a characteristic not typically considered in previous red school buildings. (Both pavilions were designed to be disassembled and reused, although the ultimate fates of the buildings have yet to be announced.)
Meanwhile, Better Co-Being and null2 take white school notions of lightness and abstraction to new levels, seeking to dissolve and merge architecture seamlessly within physical and virtual territories.
Given these projects’ manifestation of extremes, one might ask if they have gone too far. For example, the Grand Ring’s record as the largest wooden building reflects an excessive use of a natural resource, regardless of its carbon storage benefits. And Better Co-Being is sufficiently immaterial that it is nearly functionless, its roof truss providing no shelter from the elements.
Nevertheless, the extreme-seeking has value in its experimentation, advancing possibilities and offering test-cases for subsequent design and construction. The strategies these pavilions incorporate, such as reusable biomass and digital interface integration, are of increasing interest not just in Japan but in all nations. In this way, the 2025 Expo reveals how Japanese architects are simultaneously advancing local cultural agendas and global architectural practices.
